Abstract: Fruit colour is essential to seed dispersal, speciation, and biological diversity in global ecosystems. The relationship between fruit-colour variation and species diversification has long been of interest in evolutionary biology, but remains poorly understood at the genus level. Here, we used Callicarpa, a typical representative of pantropical angiosperm, to analyse whether fruit colours are correlated with biogeographic distribution, dispersal events, and diversification rate. We estimated a time-calibrated phylogeny for Callicarpa and reconstructed ancestral fruit colour. Utilizing phylogenetic methods, we estimated the major dispersal events across the phylogenetic tree and the most likely fruit colours related to each dispersal event, and tested whether the dispersal frequencies and distances of the four fruit colours between major biogeographical areas were equal. We then tested whether fruit colours are correlated with latitude, elevation, and diversification rate. Biogeographical reconstructions showed that Callicarpa originated in the East Asia and Southeast Asia during the Eocene (~35.53 Ma) and diverse species diverged mainly in the Miocene and lasted into the Pleistocene. Large-scale dispersal events were significantly associated with violet-fruited lineages. Furthermore, different fruit colours were markedly correlated with different latitudes and elevations (e.g., violet fruits were correlated with higher latitudes and elevations; red fruits and black fruits with lower latitudes; white fruits with higher elevations). Notably, violet fruits were statistically associated with highest diversification rates, driving fruit colour variation among different regions globally. Our results contribute to further understanding why fruit colour is so variable at the genus level of angiosperms in different areas around the world.

Key words: Callicarpa, Fruit colour, Phylogeny, Biogeography, Dispersal, Diversification